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#[1]JSON [2]oEmbed (JSON) [3]oEmbed (XML) IFRAME: [4]https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-K7FTJX87 [5]Smarthistory Logo (BUTTON) Magnifying Glass icon for search * About + o ABOUT SMARTHISTORY o [6]What is Smarthistory? o [7]Who is Smarthistory? o [8]Is Smarthistory reliable? o [9]Museum and institutional partners o [10]Major donors o [11]Press coverage o [12]Our blog o [13]Contribute an essay o [14]Contact us + o We believe art has the power to transform lives and to build understanding across cultures. The brilliant histories of art belong to everyone, no matter their background. With 503 contributors from 201 colleges, universities, museums, and research centers, Smarthistory is the most-visited art history resource in the world. * For Learning + o ART HISTORIES o [15]Start here o [16]Prehistoric o [17]Africa o [18]Americas o [19]Asia o [20]Ancient Mediterranean + Europe o [21]Medieval Europe + Byzantine o [22]The Islamic World o [23]Europe 1300-1800 o [24]Europe 1800-1900 o [25]Pacific Islands o [26]Modernisms 1900-1980 o [27]Art since 1980 + * Books + o SMARTHISTORY BOOKS o [28]Reframing Art History, a new kind of textbook o [29]Guide to Byzantine Art o [30]Guide to Ancient Roman Art o [31]Guide to AP� Art History vol. 1 (#1-47) o [32]Guide to AP� Art History vol. 2 (#48-98) o [33]Guide to AP� Art History vol. 3 (#99-152) o [34]See complete collection of titles + o NEW TITLES o # [35]reframing art history cover sm Reframing Art History a new kind of textbook o # [36]Byzantine cover jpg Guide to Byzantine art * Curated Guides + o THE BASICS o [37]The Basics of Art History o [38]The Basics of Religion in Art + o SYLLABI o [39]Art Appreciation o [40]AP� Art History o [41]A-level History of Art o [42]World Art History Syllabus o [43]Prehistory to the Middle Ages: the Mediterranean o [44]Renaissance to the Modern Era: Europe o [45]Medieval and Byzantine Art and Architecture o [46]Ancient Greek Art and Architecture o [47]19th-Century European Art o [48]Modern Art o [49]Global Contemporary Art o [50]History of Photography + o THEMATIC SERIES o [51]Understanding Museums o [52]Creating and Conserving o [53]Art in Flanders o [54]Latinx Futures o [55]Not your grandfather's art history: a BIPOC Reader o [56]ARCHES (At-Risk Cultural Heritage Series) o [57]The U.S. Civil War in Art o [58]Seeing America * Support + o SUPPORT SMARTHISTORY o [59]Donate o [60]Contribute an essay + o We created Smarthistory to provide students around the world with the highest-quality educational resources for art and cultural heritage--for free. * [61]Search ____________________ (BUTTON) white magnifying glass icon Index View within Art Histories The Americas to 1900 * [62]Browse this content * A beginner's guide + [63]Defining "Pre-Columbian" and "Mesoamerica" + [64]Introduction to the Spanish Viceroyalties in the Americas + [65]African religious culture in the Atlantic world + [66]Latin American art: an introduction + [67]About geography and chronological periods in Native American art + [68]Terms and Issues in Native American Art + [69]Teresita Fern�ndez on Precolumbian gold * North America before c. 1500 + [70]Browse this content + Native American / First Nations o [71]Browse this content o [72]Before 1607 in North America, an introduction o Clovis culture # [73]Clovis Culture, an introduction o [74]Bannerstones, an introduction o Moundbuilders # [75]Poverty Point, Louisiana # [76]Fort Ancient Culture: Great Serpent Mound # [77]Mississippian shell neck ornament (gorget) o Ancestral Puebloan # [78]Mesa Verde # [79]Chaco Canyon # [80]Socorro black-on-white storage jar o Mogollon # [81]Introduction to Mogollon # [82]Paquim� (Casas Grandes), Mogollon culture + Mesoamerica o [83]Browse this content o A beginner's guide to Mesoamerica # [84]Mesoamerica, an introduction # [85]Periods in Mesoamerican history # [86]The Mesoamerican Calendar # [87]Camelid sacrum in the shape of a canine # [88]Late pre-classic Mesoamerica, an introduction # [89]Mesoamerican art in context: an excerpt from an origin story (Popol Vuh) # [90]Glossary for pre-Columbian art o Tlatilco # [91]Tlatilco Figurines o Olmec # [92]Browse this content # [93]Olmec Colossal Heads # [94]Kunz Axe (Olmec) # [95]Offering #4, La Venta # [96]The Lord of Las Limas # [97]Olmec Jade # [98]Olmec mask (offering 20 from the Templo Mayor) # [99]Olmec mask # [100]Olmec figurine o West Mexico # [101]Pottery dog, Colima culture # [102]Rock paintings of Sierra de San Francisco o Zapotec # [103]Ancestor figure o Teotihuacan # [104]Teotihuacan # [105]Pyramid of the Moon and Pyramid of the Sun o Classic Veracruz culture # [106]The Mesoamerican ballgame and a Classic Veracruz yoke # [107]El Taj�n o Maya # [108]Browse this content # [109]The Maya, an introduction # [110]Maya glyphs, a basic introduction # [111]Plaque of a Maya king from Teotihuacan # [112]Mirror-Bearer # [113]Vessel with a mythological scene # [114]Painted Vessel (Enthroned Maya Lord and Attendants) # [115]Maya: The Fenton Vase # [116]Chakalte', Relief with Enthroned Ruler # [117]Classic Maya portrait stelae # [118]Palenque (Classic Period) # [119]Maya: The Yaxchil�n Lintels # [120]Yaxchil�n--Lintels 24 and 25 from Structure 23 and structures 33 and 40 # [121]C�dice Maya de M�xico Getty Conversations # [122]Tikal # [123]Tikal Stela 16 # [124]Cop�n # [125]Quirigu� o [126]Xochicalco o Cholula # [127]Pottery vessel, Mixteca-Puebla style o Huastec # [128]Huastec: Life-Death Figure o Paquim� (Casas Grandes) # [129]Paquim�, Casas Grandes # [130]Paquim� jars o Mixtec # [131]Codex Zouche-Nuttall # [132]Gold pendant depicting a ruler o Aztec # [133]Browse this content # Beginner's guide to the Mexica @ [134]Introduction to the Aztecs (Mexica) @ [135]Serpents in Mexica culture # [136]The Templo Mayor and the Coyolxauhqui Stone # [137]Coatlicue # [138]Tlaloc vessel # [139]The Sun Stone (or The Calendar Stone) (Aztec) # [140]Coyolxauhqui Monolith # [141]Monolith of Tlaltecuhtli (Earth Lord) # [142]Pottery model temples # [143]Wooden slit-drum (teponaztli) # [144]Codex Borgia # Turquoise mosaics @ [145]Turquoise mosaics, an introduction @ [146]Double-headed serpent @ [147]Serpent mask of Quetzalcoatl or Tlaloc @ [148]Mosaic mask of Tezcatlipoca # [149]The House of the Eagles, and sculptures of Mictlantecuhtli and Eagle Warrior # [150]Stone kneeling figure of Chalchiuhtlicue # [151]Seated figure of Xochipilli # [152]Seated figure of Xiuhtecuhtli # [153]Xiuhcoatl (fire serpent) # [154]Brazier of Chicomecoatl # [155]Aztec feathered headdress # [156]Aztec art and feasts for the dead # [157]Remembering the Toxcatl Massacre: The Beginning of the End of Aztec Supremacy # [158]Painting Aztec History + Isthmian cultures (Central America) o [159]Browse this content o [160]Doe Shaman Effigy o [161]Mirror Pendant in the Form of a Bat-Human From Grave 5, Sitio Conte o [162]Central American art in context: an origin story of the Bribri people + Caribbean o [163]Introduction to Ta�no art o [164]Ta�no zem�s and duhos o [165]Ta�no duho o [166]Ta�no Kuisa * North America c. 1500-1900 + [167]Browse this content + Native North American art o [168]Browse this content o A beginner's guide # [169]Terms and Issues in Native American Art # [170]About geography and chronological periods in Native American art o East # [171]Browse this content # [172]Codex Canadensis # [173]Global trade and an 18th-century Anishinaabe outfit # [174]Bandolier Bag, an introduction # [175]Anishinaabe shoulder bag # [176]The bandolier bag (Lenni Lenape) # [177]Embroidered diplomacy, the Elgin Trays o West # [178]Browse this content # 19th century @ [179]War Shirt (Upper Missouri River) @ [180]Juana Basilia Sitmelelene, Presentation Basket (Chumash) @ [181]Bear Claw Necklace (Pawnee) @ [182]Eastern Shoshone: Hide Painting of the Sun Dance, attributed to Cotsiogo (Cadzi Cody) @ [183]Feathered war bonnet @ [184]Headdress (Cheyenne or Lakota) @ [185]Paukeigope (Kiowa), Cradleboard @ [186]Mat� N�jin/Standing Bear (Minneconjou Lakota/Teton Sioux), Battle of Little Bighorn @ [187]Nellie Two Bear Gates (Ih�ktuwana Dakh�ta, Standing Rock Reservation), Suitcase # 20th century @ [188]Henry Oscar One Bull (Hunkpapa Lakota), Custer's War @ [189]Carrie Bethel (Mono Lake Paiute), Basket bowl @ [190]Brummett Echohawk (Pawnee), An Island of Redbuds on the Cimarron o Southwest # [191]Browse this content # [192]Pueblo architecture and its relationship to place # [193]Mission Church, San Esteban del Rey, Acoma Pueblo # [194]Acoma polychrome water jar # [195]Hopi: White Ogre Tihu (Katsina Figure) # [196]Nampeyo (Hopi-Tewa), polychrome jar # [197]Nampeyo (Hopi-Tewa), Polacca polychrome water jar # [198]Maria Martinez (Puebloan), Black-on-black ceramic vessel # [199]Julian Martinez (Puebloan), Buffalo Dancers # [200]Awa Tsireh (Puebloan), Pottery Makers # [201]The pueblo modernism of Ma Pe Wi (Puebloan) o Northwest coast & Arctic # [202]Browse this content # [203]Tsimshian shaman's rattle # [204]Ceremonial belt (Kwakwaka'wakw) # [205]Transformation masks, an introduction # [206]North Wind Mask (Yu'pik) # [207]Arctic clothing # [208]Haida totem pole, from Old Kasaan # [209]Haida potlatch pole # [210]Bentwood Boxes of the Northwest Coast peoples # [211]Tlingit mortuary and memorial totem poles # [212]Tlingit Proud Raven totem pole, Saxman Totem Park # [213]Tlingit Oyster Man totem pole, Saxman Totem Park # [214]The Chief Johnson Totem Pole # [215]Dorica Jackson, Diving Whale Chilkat Robe # [216]Clarissa Rizal (Tlingit), Resilience Robe # [217]Northwest Coast Basketry--Woven Traditions + New Spain o [218]Browse this content o A beginner's guide # [219]New Spain, an introduction # [220]Prints and Printmakers in Colonial New Spain # [221]The Bug That Had the World Seeing Red # [222]The Medici collect the Americas # [223]Virgin of Guadalupe # [224]Corn pith sculptures # [225]Defensive saints and angels in the Spanish Americas # [226]Elite secular art in New Spain o 16th century # [227]Hispaniola's early colonial art, an introduction # [228]The Codex Huexotzinco # [229]La Casa del De�n in Puebla # [230]Classical Architecture in Viceregal Mexico # [231]Puebla de los �ngeles and the classical architectural tradition # [232]Hearst Chalice # Missions and their art @ [233]Mission churches as theaters of conversion in New Spain @ [234]St. Michael the Archangel in Huejotzingo @ [235]The Convento of San Nicol�s de Tolentino, Actopan, Hidalgo @ [236]A new Jerusalem in the Americas--the convento of Acolman @ [237]Murals from New Spain, San Agust�n de Acolman @ [238]Atrial Cross at Acolman # [239]Frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza # [240]Images of Africans in the Codex Telleriano-Remensis and Codex Azcatitlan # The Florentine Codex @ [241]Bernardino de Sahag�n and Indigenous collaborators, Florentine Codex @ [242]Remembering the Toxcatl Massacre: The Beginning of the End of Aztec Supremacy # Featherworks @ [243]Featherworks: The Mass of St. Gregory @ [244]A Renaissance miniature in wood and feathers @ [245]A shimmering saint, St. John in featherwork # [246]Map of Cholula, from the relaciones geogr�ficas # [247]"Burning of the Idols," in Diego Mu�oz Camargo's Description of the City and Province of Tlaxcala # [248]Engravings in Diego de Valad�s's Rhetorica Christiana # [249]Saintly violence? Santiago on Horseback # [250]The manuscripts of Luis de Carvajal # [251]Andr�s de Concha, St. Cecilia o 17th and 18th centuries # [252]Scenes of the Alameda Central of Mexico City # [253]Testerian Catechism, The Egerton Codex # [254]Baltasar de Echave Ib�a, The Hermits # [255]Mission Church, San Esteban del Rey, Acoma Pueblo # [256]Sebasti�n L�pez de Arteaga, Marriage of the Virgin # [257]Miguel Gonz�lez, The Virgin of Guadalupe # [258]Christ Crucified, a Hispano-Philippine ivory # [259]Crist�bal de Villalpando, View of the Plaza Mayor of Mexico City # [260]Talavera poblana # Biombos (folding screens) @ [261]Screen with the Siege of Belgrade and Hunting Scene (or Brooklyn Biombo) @ [262]Biombo with the Conquest of Mexico and View of Mexico City # Miguel Cabrera @ [263]Portrait of Sor Juana In�s de la Cruz @ [264]Virgin of the Apocalypse @ [265]From Spaniard and Morisca, Albino Girl # Casta paintings @ [266]Spaniard and Indian Produce a Mestizo, attributed to Juan Rodr�guez Ju�rez @ [267]Francisco Clapera, set of sixteen casta paintings # [268]Juan Patricio Morlete Ruiz, Christ Consoled by Angels # [269]The Virgin of the Macana and the Pueblo Revolution of 1680 # [270]Miguel de Herrera, Portrait of a Lady # Crowned nun portraits @ [271]Crowned nun portraits, an introduction @ [272]Crowned Nun Portrait of Sor Mar�a de Guadalupe # [273]Escudos de monjas, or nuns' badges, in New Spain # [274]Mission San Antonio de Valero & the Alamo # [275]Nativity group, from Guatemala # [276]Jer�nimo de Balb�s, Altar of the Kings (Altar de los Reyes) # [277]Church of Santa Prisca and San Sebastian, Taxco, Mexico + British colonies and the Early Republic o [278]Browse this content o Colonial period # [279]1607-1754 in North America: colonies, slavery, and war # [280]Inventing "America," The Engravings of Theodore de Bry # [281]Portraits of John and Elizabeth Freake (and their baby) # [282]Puritan court cupboard # [283]African Burial Ground, New York # [284]John Smibert, The Bermuda Group # [285]Gerardus Duyckinck I (attributed), Six portraits of the Levy-Franks family, c. 1735 # [286]Silver sugar bowl # Benjamin West @ [287]The Death of General Wolfe @ [288]Penn's Treaty with the Indians # John Singleton Copley @ [289]A Boy with a Flying Squirrel (Henry Pelham) @ [290]Ostentatious plainness: Copley's portrait of the Mifflins @ [291]Paul Revere @ [292]The Copley Family @ [293]Watson and the Shark o Early Republic # [294]1754-1800 in North America, an introduction # [295]John Trumbull, The Declaration of Independence # [296]Jean-Antoine Houdon, George Washington # Gilbert Stuart @ [297]The Skater @ [298]Lansdowne Portrait # Thomas Jefferson @ [299]Monticello @ [300]Rotunda, University of Virginia # Charles Willson Peale @ [301]Yarrow Mamout @ [302]Staircase Group (Portrait of Raphaelle Peale and Titian Ramsay Peale) @ [303]The Artist in His Museum # [304]Rembrandt Peale, Rubens Peale with a Geranium # [305]John Vanderlyn, Ariadne Asleep on the Island of Naxos # Thomas Birch @ [306]Perry's Victory on Lake Erie @ [307]Fairmount Water Works + Caribbean to c. 1800 o Jos� Campeche y Jord�n # [308]The portraitist of 18th-century Puerto Rico # [309]Portrait of Governor Ram�n de Castro # [310]Exvoto de la Sagrada Familia o [311]Agostino Brunias, Free Women of Color with Their Children and Servants in a Landscape + United States in the 19th century o [312]Browse this content o Beginner's guide--American art in context # [313]1800-48 in the United States, an introduction # [314]1848-77 in the United States, an introduction # [315]1877-1898 in the United States, an introduction # [316]The Mexican-American War: 19th-century American art in context # [317]John Brown's "tragic prelude" to the U.S. Civil War # [318]The Missouri Compromise and the dangerous precedent of appeasement # The U.S. Civil War @ Causes of the War - [319]"The Immediate Cause of the Civil War," an introduction - [320]The problem of picturing slavery - [321]Images in a divided world - [322]Imagining the West, territorial expansion, and the politics of slavery @ Experiences of the War - [323]Experiences of the U.S. Civil War, an introduction - [324]The work of war - [325]Homes and families - [326]Refugees, prisoners, and displacement @ Commemoration of the War - [327]Memory and commemoration of the U.S. Civil War, an introduction - [328]The Lost Cause and Confederate memory - [329]Abraham Lincoln and northern memory # [330]Nast & Reconstruction, understanding a political cartoon # [331]Nativism, immigration, and the Know-Nothing party # The 1893 Chicago World's Fair @ [332]The World's Columbian Exposition: Introduction @ [333]The White City and fairgrounds @ [334]The Midway o Romanticism # [335]Browse this content # [336]Washington Allston, Elijah in the Desert # Thomas Cole @ [337]Expulsion from the Garden of Eden @ [338]The Oxbow @ [339]The Architect's Dream @ [340]The Voyage of Life @ [341]The Hunter's Return # [342]Hicks's The Peaceable Kingdom as Pennsylvania parable # [343]George Catlin, The White Cloud, Head Chief of the Iowas # Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze @ [344]Washington Crossing the Delaware @ [345]Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way # [346]Rothermel, De Soto Raising the Cross on the Banks of the Mississippi # [347]George Inness, The Lackawanna Valley # [348]Jasper Francis Cropsey, Mount Jefferson, Pinkham Notch, White Mountains # Frederic Edwin Church @ [349]Niagara and Heart of the Andes @ [350]Cotopaxi @ [351]The Iceberg # [352]Fitz Henry Lane, Owl's Head, Penobscot Bay, Maine # [353]Albert Bierstadt, Hetch Hetchy Valley, California # [354]Thomas Moran, Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone # [355]A dream of Italy: Black artists and travel in the nineteenth century o Art and Jewish culture # [356]An introduction to Jewish art in the United States Before 1900 # [357]Moses Jacob Ezekiel, Religious Liberty # [358]Henry Mosler, Le Retour # [359]Julius Bien, Max Rosenthal, and chromolithography # [360]Solomon Nunes Carvalho, View of a Cheyenne Village o [361]The Radical Floriography of Sarah Mapps Douglass o Realism # [362]Browse this content # [363]Francis Guy, Winter Scene in Brooklyn # [364]John Wesley Jarvis, Black Hawk and His Son Whirling Thunder # [365]William Sidney Mount, Bargaining for a Horse # [366]John James Audubon, The Wild Turkey # [367]Richard Caton Woodville, War News from Mexico # [368]Asher B. Durand, Kindred Spirits # [369]George Caleb Bingham, Country Politician # [370]Frederic Church, The Natural Bridge, Virginia # [371]David Gilmour Blythe, Justice # [372]Thomas Hovenden, The Last Moments of John Brown # [373]Eastman Johnson, A Ride for Liberty -- The Fugitive Slaves # [374]Lilly Martin Spencer, The Home of the Red, White, and Blue # [375]Samuel Colman, Jr., Ships Unloading, New York # Thomas Eakins @ [376]The Champion Single Sculls (Max Schmitt in a Single Scull) @ [377]The Gross Clinic # Winslow Homer @ [378]The U.S. Civil War, sharpshooters and Winslow Homer @ [379]Army Teamsters @ [380]Taking Sunflower to Teacher @ [381]The Life Line @ [382]The Fog Warning (or Halibut Fishing) @ [383]Northeaster @ [384]Searchlight on Harbor Entrance, Santiago de Cuba # [385]Grafton Tyler Brown, View of the Lower Falls, Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone o Western art # [386]Frederic Remington, The Fall of the Cowboy o Aestheticism and the Gilded Age # [387]Browse this content # James Abbott McNeill Whistler @ [388]Symphony in White, No. 1: The White Girl @ [389]Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket # John Singer Sargent @ [390]El Jaleo @ [391]The Daughters of Edward Darley Boit @ [392]Madame X (Madame Pierre Gautreau) @ [393]Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose @ [394]Kehinde Wiley on John Singer Sargent o Photography # [395]Browse this content # [396]Augustus Washington, John Brown # [397]John Choate, Boarding School Portraits of Tom Torlino # Carleton Watkins @ [398]Eagle Creek, Columbia River @ [399]Peaks and perils: The life of Carleton Watkins # Timothy O'Sullivan @ [400]A Harvest of Death @ [401]Ancient Ruins in the Ca�on de Chelle # [402]Jacob Riis, "Knee-Pants" at Forty-Five Cents a Dozen--A Ludlow Street Sweater's Shop, from How the Other Half Lives o Sculpture and architecture # [403]Browse this content # [404]The Alamo (& Mission San Antonio de Valero) # [405]Congo Square, New Orleans # [406]Inventing America, Colt's Experimental Pocket Pistol # [407]Cultures and slavery in the American south: a Face Jug from Edgefield county # [408]David Drake, Double-handled jug # [409]Little Round House # [410]John Quincy Adams Ward, The Freedman # Edmonia Lewis @ [411]The Old Arrow Maker @ [412]Forever Free # [413]Anna Pottery, Snake jug # [414]Hiram Powers, The Greek Slave # [415]William Wetmore Story, Cleopatra # [416]Thomas Crawford, George Washington Equestrian Monument # [417]Slave Burial Ground, University of Alabama # [418]Seneca Village: the lost history of African Americans in New York # [419]Olmsted and Vaux, Central Park # [420]Herter Brothers, Mark Hopkins House Side Chair # [421]Robert Mills and Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Lincoln Casey, Washington Monument # [422]The light of democracy -- examining the Statue of Liberty # [423]Monument Avenue and the Lost Cause # [424]Defeated, heroized, dismantled: Richmond's Robert E. Lee Monument # [425]Shrady and Casey, Ulysses S. Grant Memorial # Burnham and Root @ [426]The Monadnock Building @ [427]Reliance Building # Louis Sullivan @ [428]Bayard-Condict Building @ [429]Carson, Pirie, Scott Building # [430]Carr�re & Hastings, The New York Public Library + Canada in the 19th century o [431]"A Cheap Farm House," c. 1864-onward o [432]William Notman, Ice Shove, Commissioner Street, Montreal o [433]Frances Jones (Bannerman), In the Conservatory * South America before c. 1500 + [434]Browse this content + Beginner's guide o [435]Introduction to Andean Cultures o [436]Introduction to Ancient Andean Art o [437]Ancient Andean art in context: An origin story ("The Legend of �aymlap") + Peru and Bolivia o [438]Caral o Cupisnique # [439]Feline-Head Bottle o Chav�n culture # [440]Chav�n de Hu�ntar # [441]Complexity and vision: the Staff God at Chav�n de Hu�ntar and beyond o Salinar culture # [442]Nose ornament with spiders o Nasca # [443]Nasca Art: Sacred Linearity and Bold Designs # [444]Nasca ceramics, an introduction # [445]Nasca Geoglyphs # [446]The Paracas Textile o Paracas # [447]Browse this content # [448]Paracas, an introduction # [449]Paracas Textiles, an introduction # [450]Paracas Supernatural Bird Mantle # [451]Paracas Feline Face Bottle # [452]Paracas Flying Figure Bowl o Moche culture # [453]Browse this content # [454]Moche culture, an introduction # [455]The Moche Royal Tombs of Sip�n # [456]Pair of Earflares, Winged Messengers # [457]Moche Portrait Head Bottle # [458]Funerary bundle of the Se�ora de Cao # [459]Moche Octopus Headdress o Wari # [460]Four-cornered hat # [461]Feather panels # [462]A Wari tunic o Tiwanaku # [463]Tiwanaku, an introduction # [464]Semi-subterranean Court at the site of Tiwanaku o Chancay culture # [465]Chancay Standing Female Figure o Chim� culture # [466]Introduction to the Chim� culture # [467]Chan Chan o Sic�n culture # [468]Inverse-Face Beaker o Inka # [469]Browse this content # [470]Introduction to the Inka # [471]Inka stone vessels # [472]The Inka khipu # [473]City of Cuzco # [474]An Inka paccha # [475]Maize cobs # [476]Machu Picchu # [477]All-T'oqapu Tunic # [478]Inka checkerboard tunics # [479]Keru Vessel # [480]What is an Inka ushnu? + Ecuador o Chorrera culture # [481]Chorrera ceramics o Jama-Coaque culture # [482]Jama-Coaque ceramics + Ancient Colombia chiefdoms o [483]Ancient Colombian goldmaking o [484]Muisca Raft * South America c. 1500-1820 + [485]Browse this content + Viceroyalty of Peru o [486]Browse this content o A beginner's guide # [487]Introduction to the Viceroyalty of Peru # [488]Portrait Painting in the Viceroyalty of Peru o 16th century # [489]Introduction to religious art and architecture in early colonial Peru # [490]Early Viceregal Architecture and Art in Colombia # [491]Textiles in the Colonial Andes o 17th and 18th centuries # Guaman Poma and the First New Chronicle and Good Government @ [492]Guaman Poma and The First New Chronicle and Good Government @ [493]Africans in Guaman Poma's Nueva Cor�nica @ [494]"Bad Confession" in Guaman Poma's The First New Chronicle and Good Government # [495]Luis de Ria�o and Indigenous collaborators, The Paths to Heaven and Hell, Church of San Pedro de Andahuaylillas # [496]Bernardo Bitti, Coronation of the Virgin # [497]Alonso de Ovalle, Tabula geographica regni Chile # [498]Ex-voto of Cuzco's 1650 Earthquake # [499]Diego Quispe Tito, Last Judgment, 1675 # [500]Parish of San Sebasti�n, Procession of Corpus Christi series # [501]Master of Calamarca, Angel with Arquebus # [502]Melchor P�rez de Holgu�n, Entry of Viceroy Archbishop Morcillo into Potos� # Cuzco School painting @ [503]Our Lady of Cocharcas and the Cuzco School of Painting @ [504]The Coronation of the Virgin by the Holy Trinity @ [505]The Child Mary Spinning @ [506]Union of the Inka Royal Family with the Houses of Loyola and Borgia @ [507]Portrait of Don Marcos Chiguan Topa @ [508]Cuzco School Artist, Saint Joseph and the Christ Child @ [509]Conserving Cuzco School Paintings # [510]Fourteen portraits of the Inka Kings # [511]Official Portrait of Bishop Luis Francisco Romero # [512]Portraits of Francisca Ram�rez de Laredo and Antonio de Ulloa # [513]Churches of Chilo� + Viceroyalty of New Granada o [514]Browse this content o [515]Virgin of Chiquinquir� o [516]Juan Pedro L�pez, Our Lady of Guidance o [517]Crown of the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception o [518]Diego Antonio de Landaeta, Portrait of Petronila M�ndez o [519]Vicente Alb�n, Quito series + Viceroyalty of the R�o de la Plata o [520]Jesuit Missions of the R�o de la Plata + Colonial Brazil o [521]Browse this content o [522]Introduction to colonial Brazil o [523]Albert Eckhout, Series of eight figures o [524]Church of S�o Francisco de Assis, Ouro Preto o [525]Church of Our Lady of the Rosary of the Blacks, Ouro Preto o [526]Mestre Valentim, Passeio P�blico, Rio de Janeiro o [527]Sanctuary of Bom Jesus de Matosinhos of Congonhas do Campo, 1757-1872 o Carlos Juli�o # [528]Watercolor manuscript # [529]"Black Kings and Queens" o [530]Jesuit Missions of the Guaranis o [531]Manoel da Costa Ata�de, ceiling painting of the Church of Saint Anthony, Santa B�rbara o [532]An Antidote for Social Amnesia: The Memory Space of the Cais do Valongo + Amazonian o [533]Munduruk� Headdress: a glimpse of life in the Amazon rainforest o [534]Kayap� Headdress: a glimpse of life in the Amazon rainforest * Latin America c. 1800-1900 + [535]Browse this content + A beginner's guide o [536]Independence from Spanish rule in South America o [537]Early Scientific Exploration in Latin America o [538]Costumbrismo o [539]Latin American artistic pilgrimages to Paris o [540]Landscape Painting in Nineteenth-Century Latin America o [541]The challenge of the nude in 19th-century Latin American painting + Mexico in the 19th century o [542]Browse this content o [543]The Academy of San Carlos o [544]Mexican Independence o [545]Ferdinand Deppe, The Mission of San Gabriel, Alta California in May 1832 o [546]Manuel Vilar, Tlahuicole o [547]F�lix Parra, Fray Bartolom� de las Casas o Jos� Mar�a Velasco # [548]The Valley of Mexico from the Santa Isabel Mountain Range # [549]The Candelabrum o [550]Jos� Agust�n Arrieta, La Sorpreza o [551]Felipe Santiago Guti�rrez, La despedida del joven indio o [552]Cristo de Sacromonte ex-voto o [553]Retablo of La Mano Poderosa/The All Powerful Hand + Caribbean in the 19th century o Francisco Oller # [554]Hacienda La Fortuna # [555]Still Life with Plantains and Bananas and Still Life with Coconuts # [556]The Wake # [557]President William McKinley o [558]Richard Evans, Portraits of the Caribbean's first Black king and prince o [559]Isaac Mendes Belisario, Sketches of Character o [560]Michel-Jean Cazabon, Cedar Point, Mount Tamana o [561]Manuel Cuy�s Agull�, El desembarque de los americanos en Ponce, 27 de julio de 1898 + Colombia in the 19th century o [562]Browse this content o [563]Carmelo Fern�ndez, The Strait of Furatena in the Minero River + Photography o [564]Marc Ferrez, Slaves at a Coffee Yard in a Farm, Vale do Paraiba, Sao Paulo Show Navigation View within Art Histories The Americas to 1900 * [565]Browse this content * A beginner's guide + [566]Defining "Pre-Columbian" and "Mesoamerica" + [567]Introduction to the Spanish Viceroyalties in the Americas + [568]African religious culture in the Atlantic world + [569]Latin American art: an introduction + [570]About geography and chronological periods in Native American art + [571]Terms and Issues in Native American Art + [572]Teresita Fern�ndez on Precolumbian gold * North America before c. 1500 + [573]Browse this content + Native American / First Nations o [574]Browse this content o [575]Before 1607 in North America, an introduction o Clovis culture # [576]Clovis Culture, an introduction o [577]Bannerstones, an introduction o Moundbuilders # [578]Poverty Point, Louisiana # [579]Fort Ancient Culture: Great Serpent Mound # [580]Mississippian shell neck ornament (gorget) o Ancestral Puebloan # [581]Mesa Verde # [582]Chaco Canyon # [583]Socorro black-on-white storage jar o Mogollon # [584]Introduction to Mogollon # [585]Paquim� (Casas Grandes), Mogollon culture + Mesoamerica o [586]Browse this content o A beginner's guide to Mesoamerica # [587]Mesoamerica, an introduction # [588]Periods in Mesoamerican history # [589]The Mesoamerican Calendar # [590]Camelid sacrum in the shape of a canine # [591]Late pre-classic Mesoamerica, an introduction # [592]Mesoamerican art in context: an excerpt from an origin story (Popol Vuh) # [593]Glossary for pre-Columbian art o Tlatilco # [594]Tlatilco Figurines o Olmec # [595]Browse this content # [596]Olmec Colossal Heads # [597]Kunz Axe (Olmec) # [598]Offering #4, La Venta # [599]The Lord of Las Limas # [600]Olmec Jade # [601]Olmec mask (offering 20 from the Templo Mayor) # [602]Olmec mask # [603]Olmec figurine o West Mexico # [604]Pottery dog, Colima culture # [605]Rock paintings of Sierra de San Francisco o Zapotec # [606]Ancestor figure o Teotihuacan # [607]Teotihuacan # [608]Pyramid of the Moon and Pyramid of the Sun o Classic Veracruz culture # [609]The Mesoamerican ballgame and a Classic Veracruz yoke # [610]El Taj�n o Maya # [611]Browse this content # [612]The Maya, an introduction # [613]Maya glyphs, a basic introduction # [614]Plaque of a Maya king from Teotihuacan # [615]Mirror-Bearer # [616]Vessel with a mythological scene # [617]Painted Vessel (Enthroned Maya Lord and Attendants) # [618]Maya: The Fenton Vase # [619]Chakalte', Relief with Enthroned Ruler # [620]Classic Maya portrait stelae # [621]Palenque (Classic Period) # [622]Maya: The Yaxchil�n Lintels # [623]Yaxchil�n--Lintels 24 and 25 from Structure 23 and structures 33 and 40 # [624]C�dice Maya de M�xico Getty Conversations # [625]Tikal # [626]Tikal Stela 16 # [627]Cop�n # [628]Quirigu� o [629]Xochicalco o Cholula # [630]Pottery vessel, Mixteca-Puebla style o Huastec # [631]Huastec: Life-Death Figure o Paquim� (Casas Grandes) # [632]Paquim�, Casas Grandes # [633]Paquim� jars o Mixtec # [634]Codex Zouche-Nuttall # [635]Gold pendant depicting a ruler o Aztec # [636]Browse this content # Beginner's guide to the Mexica @ [637]Introduction to the Aztecs (Mexica) @ [638]Serpents in Mexica culture # [639]The Templo Mayor and the Coyolxauhqui Stone # [640]Coatlicue # [641]Tlaloc vessel # [642]The Sun Stone (or The Calendar Stone) (Aztec) # [643]Coyolxauhqui Monolith # [644]Monolith of Tlaltecuhtli (Earth Lord) # [645]Pottery model temples # [646]Wooden slit-drum (teponaztli) # [647]Codex Borgia # Turquoise mosaics @ [648]Turquoise mosaics, an introduction @ [649]Double-headed serpent @ [650]Serpent mask of Quetzalcoatl or Tlaloc @ [651]Mosaic mask of Tezcatlipoca # [652]The House of the Eagles, and sculptures of Mictlantecuhtli and Eagle Warrior # [653]Stone kneeling figure of Chalchiuhtlicue # [654]Seated figure of Xochipilli # [655]Seated figure of Xiuhtecuhtli # [656]Xiuhcoatl (fire serpent) # [657]Brazier of Chicomecoatl # [658]Aztec feathered headdress # [659]Aztec art and feasts for the dead # [660]Remembering the Toxcatl Massacre: The Beginning of the End of Aztec Supremacy # [661]Painting Aztec History + Isthmian cultures (Central America) o [662]Browse this content o [663]Doe Shaman Effigy o [664]Mirror Pendant in the Form of a Bat-Human From Grave 5, Sitio Conte o [665]Central American art in context: an origin story of the Bribri people + Caribbean o [666]Introduction to Ta�no art o [667]Ta�no zem�s and duhos o [668]Ta�no duho o [669]Ta�no Kuisa * North America c. 1500-1900 + [670]Browse this content + Native North American art o [671]Browse this content o A beginner's guide # [672]Terms and Issues in Native American Art # [673]About geography and chronological periods in Native American art o East # [674]Browse this content # [675]Codex Canadensis # [676]Global trade and an 18th-century Anishinaabe outfit # [677]Bandolier Bag, an introduction # [678]Anishinaabe shoulder bag # [679]The bandolier bag (Lenni Lenape) # [680]Embroidered diplomacy, the Elgin Trays o West # [681]Browse this content # 19th century @ [682]War Shirt (Upper Missouri River) @ [683]Juana Basilia Sitmelelene, Presentation Basket (Chumash) @ [684]Bear Claw Necklace (Pawnee) @ [685]Eastern Shoshone: Hide Painting of the Sun Dance, attributed to Cotsiogo (Cadzi Cody) @ [686]Feathered war bonnet @ [687]Headdress (Cheyenne or Lakota) @ [688]Paukeigope (Kiowa), Cradleboard @ [689]Mat� N�jin/Standing Bear (Minneconjou Lakota/Teton Sioux), Battle of Little Bighorn @ [690]Nellie Two Bear Gates (Ih�ktuwana Dakh�ta, Standing Rock Reservation), Suitcase # 20th century @ [691]Henry Oscar One Bull (Hunkpapa Lakota), Custer's War @ [692]Carrie Bethel (Mono Lake Paiute), Basket bowl @ [693]Brummett Echohawk (Pawnee), An Island of Redbuds on the Cimarron o Southwest # [694]Browse this content # [695]Pueblo architecture and its relationship to place # [696]Mission Church, San Esteban del Rey, Acoma Pueblo # [697]Acoma polychrome water jar # [698]Hopi: White Ogre Tihu (Katsina Figure) # [699]Nampeyo (Hopi-Tewa), polychrome jar # [700]Nampeyo (Hopi-Tewa), Polacca polychrome water jar # [701]Maria Martinez (Puebloan), Black-on-black ceramic vessel # [702]Julian Martinez (Puebloan), Buffalo Dancers # [703]Awa Tsireh (Puebloan), Pottery Makers # [704]The pueblo modernism of Ma Pe Wi (Puebloan) o Northwest coast & Arctic # [705]Browse this content # [706]Tsimshian shaman's rattle # [707]Ceremonial belt (Kwakwaka'wakw) # [708]Transformation masks, an introduction # [709]North Wind Mask (Yu'pik) # [710]Arctic clothing # [711]Haida totem pole, from Old Kasaan # [712]Haida potlatch pole # [713]Bentwood Boxes of the Northwest Coast peoples # [714]Tlingit mortuary and memorial totem poles # [715]Tlingit Proud Raven totem pole, Saxman Totem Park # [716]Tlingit Oyster Man totem pole, Saxman Totem Park # [717]The Chief Johnson Totem Pole # [718]Dorica Jackson, Diving Whale Chilkat Robe # [719]Clarissa Rizal (Tlingit), Resilience Robe # [720]Northwest Coast Basketry--Woven Traditions + New Spain o [721]Browse this content o A beginner's guide # [722]New Spain, an introduction # [723]Prints and Printmakers in Colonial New Spain # [724]The Bug That Had the World Seeing Red # [725]The Medici collect the Americas # [726]Virgin of Guadalupe # [727]Corn pith sculptures # [728]Defensive saints and angels in the Spanish Americas # [729]Elite secular art in New Spain o 16th century # [730]Hispaniola's early colonial art, an introduction # [731]The Codex Huexotzinco # [732]La Casa del De�n in Puebla # [733]Classical Architecture in Viceregal Mexico # [734]Puebla de los �ngeles and the classical architectural tradition # [735]Hearst Chalice # Missions and their art @ [736]Mission churches as theaters of conversion in New Spain @ [737]St. Michael the Archangel in Huejotzingo @ [738]The Convento of San Nicol�s de Tolentino, Actopan, Hidalgo @ [739]A new Jerusalem in the Americas--the convento of Acolman @ [740]Murals from New Spain, San Agust�n de Acolman @ [741]Atrial Cross at Acolman # [742]Frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza # [743]Images of Africans in the Codex Telleriano-Remensis and Codex Azcatitlan # The Florentine Codex @ [744]Bernardino de Sahag�n and Indigenous collaborators, Florentine Codex @ [745]Remembering the Toxcatl Massacre: The Beginning of the End of Aztec Supremacy # Featherworks @ [746]Featherworks: The Mass of St. Gregory @ [747]A Renaissance miniature in wood and feathers @ [748]A shimmering saint, St. John in featherwork # [749]Map of Cholula, from the relaciones geogr�ficas # [750]"Burning of the Idols," in Diego Mu�oz Camargo's Description of the City and Province of Tlaxcala # [751]Engravings in Diego de Valad�s's Rhetorica Christiana # [752]Saintly violence? Santiago on Horseback # [753]The manuscripts of Luis de Carvajal # [754]Andr�s de Concha, St. Cecilia o 17th and 18th centuries # [755]Scenes of the Alameda Central of Mexico City # [756]Testerian Catechism, The Egerton Codex # [757]Baltasar de Echave Ib�a, The Hermits # [758]Mission Church, San Esteban del Rey, Acoma Pueblo # [759]Sebasti�n L�pez de Arteaga, Marriage of the Virgin # [760]Miguel Gonz�lez, The Virgin of Guadalupe # [761]Christ Crucified, a Hispano-Philippine ivory # [762]Crist�bal de Villalpando, View of the Plaza Mayor of Mexico City # [763]Talavera poblana # Biombos (folding screens) @ [764]Screen with the Siege of Belgrade and Hunting Scene (or Brooklyn Biombo) @ [765]Biombo with the Conquest of Mexico and View of Mexico City # Miguel Cabrera @ [766]Portrait of Sor Juana In�s de la Cruz @ [767]Virgin of the Apocalypse @ [768]From Spaniard and Morisca, Albino Girl # Casta paintings @ [769]Spaniard and Indian Produce a Mestizo, attributed to Juan Rodr�guez Ju�rez @ [770]Francisco Clapera, set of sixteen casta paintings # [771]Juan Patricio Morlete Ruiz, Christ Consoled by Angels # [772]The Virgin of the Macana and the Pueblo Revolution of 1680 # [773]Miguel de Herrera, Portrait of a Lady # Crowned nun portraits @ [774]Crowned nun portraits, an introduction @ [775]Crowned Nun Portrait of Sor Mar�a de Guadalupe # [776]Escudos de monjas, or nuns' badges, in New Spain # [777]Mission San Antonio de Valero & the Alamo # [778]Nativity group, from Guatemala # [779]Jer�nimo de Balb�s, Altar of the Kings (Altar de los Reyes) # [780]Church of Santa Prisca and San Sebastian, Taxco, Mexico + British colonies and the Early Republic o [781]Browse this content o Colonial period # [782]1607-1754 in North America: colonies, slavery, and war # [783]Inventing "America," The Engravings of Theodore de Bry # [784]Portraits of John and Elizabeth Freake (and their baby) # [785]Puritan court cupboard # [786]African Burial Ground, New York # [787]John Smibert, The Bermuda Group # [788]Gerardus Duyckinck I (attributed), Six portraits of the Levy-Franks family, c. 1735 # [789]Silver sugar bowl # Benjamin West @ [790]The Death of General Wolfe @ [791]Penn's Treaty with the Indians # John Singleton Copley @ [792]A Boy with a Flying Squirrel (Henry Pelham) @ [793]Ostentatious plainness: Copley's portrait of the Mifflins @ [794]Paul Revere @ [795]The Copley Family @ [796]Watson and the Shark o Early Republic # [797]1754-1800 in North America, an introduction # [798]John Trumbull, The Declaration of Independence # [799]Jean-Antoine Houdon, George Washington # Gilbert Stuart @ [800]The Skater @ [801]Lansdowne Portrait # Thomas Jefferson @ [802]Monticello @ [803]Rotunda, University of Virginia # Charles Willson Peale @ [804]Yarrow Mamout @ [805]Staircase Group (Portrait of Raphaelle Peale and Titian Ramsay Peale) @ [806]The Artist in His Museum # [807]Rembrandt Peale, Rubens Peale with a Geranium # [808]John Vanderlyn, Ariadne Asleep on the Island of Naxos # Thomas Birch @ [809]Perry's Victory on Lake Erie @ [810]Fairmount Water Works + Caribbean to c. 1800 o Jos� Campeche y Jord�n # [811]The portraitist of 18th-century Puerto Rico # [812]Portrait of Governor Ram�n de Castro # [813]Exvoto de la Sagrada Familia o [814]Agostino Brunias, Free Women of Color with Their Children and Servants in a Landscape + United States in the 19th century o [815]Browse this content o Beginner's guide--American art in context # [816]1800-48 in the United States, an introduction # [817]1848-77 in the United States, an introduction # [818]1877-1898 in the United States, an introduction # [819]The Mexican-American War: 19th-century American art in context # [820]John Brown's "tragic prelude" to the U.S. Civil War # [821]The Missouri Compromise and the dangerous precedent of appeasement # The U.S. Civil War @ Causes of the War - [822]"The Immediate Cause of the Civil War," an introduction - [823]The problem of picturing slavery - [824]Images in a divided world - [825]Imagining the West, territorial expansion, and the politics of slavery @ Experiences of the War - [826]Experiences of the U.S. Civil War, an introduction - [827]The work of war - [828]Homes and families - [829]Refugees, prisoners, and displacement @ Commemoration of the War - [830]Memory and commemoration of the U.S. Civil War, an introduction - [831]The Lost Cause and Confederate memory - [832]Abraham Lincoln and northern memory # [833]Nast & Reconstruction, understanding a political cartoon # [834]Nativism, immigration, and the Know-Nothing party # The 1893 Chicago World's Fair @ [835]The World's Columbian Exposition: Introduction @ [836]The White City and fairgrounds @ [837]The Midway o Romanticism # [838]Browse this content # [839]Washington Allston, Elijah in the Desert # Thomas Cole @ [840]Expulsion from the Garden of Eden @ [841]The Oxbow @ [842]The Architect's Dream @ [843]The Voyage of Life @ [844]The Hunter's Return # [845]Hicks's The Peaceable Kingdom as Pennsylvania parable # [846]George Catlin, The White Cloud, Head Chief of the Iowas # Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze @ [847]Washington Crossing the Delaware @ [848]Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way # [849]Rothermel, De Soto Raising the Cross on the Banks of the Mississippi # [850]George Inness, The Lackawanna Valley # [851]Jasper Francis Cropsey, Mount Jefferson, Pinkham Notch, White Mountains # Frederic Edwin Church @ [852]Niagara and Heart of the Andes @ [853]Cotopaxi @ [854]The Iceberg # [855]Fitz Henry Lane, Owl's Head, Penobscot Bay, Maine # [856]Albert Bierstadt, Hetch Hetchy Valley, California # [857]Thomas Moran, Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone # [858]A dream of Italy: Black artists and travel in the nineteenth century o Art and Jewish culture # [859]An introduction to Jewish art in the United States Before 1900 # [860]Moses Jacob Ezekiel, Religious Liberty # [861]Henry Mosler, Le Retour # [862]Julius Bien, Max Rosenthal, and chromolithography # [863]Solomon Nunes Carvalho, View of a Cheyenne Village o [864]The Radical Floriography of Sarah Mapps Douglass o Realism # [865]Browse this content # [866]Francis Guy, Winter Scene in Brooklyn # [867]John Wesley Jarvis, Black Hawk and His Son Whirling Thunder # [868]William Sidney Mount, Bargaining for a Horse # [869]John James Audubon, The Wild Turkey # [870]Richard Caton Woodville, War News from Mexico # [871]Asher B. Durand, Kindred Spirits # [872]George Caleb Bingham, Country Politician # [873]Frederic Church, The Natural Bridge, Virginia # [874]David Gilmour Blythe, Justice # [875]Thomas Hovenden, The Last Moments of John Brown # [876]Eastman Johnson, A Ride for Liberty -- The Fugitive Slaves # [877]Lilly Martin Spencer, The Home of the Red, White, and Blue # [878]Samuel Colman, Jr., Ships Unloading, New York # Thomas Eakins @ [879]The Champion Single Sculls (Max Schmitt in a Single Scull) @ [880]The Gross Clinic # Winslow Homer @ [881]The U.S. Civil War, sharpshooters and Winslow Homer @ [882]Army Teamsters @ [883]Taking Sunflower to Teacher @ [884]The Life Line @ [885]The Fog Warning (or Halibut Fishing) @ [886]Northeaster @ [887]Searchlight on Harbor Entrance, Santiago de Cuba # [888]Grafton Tyler Brown, View of the Lower Falls, Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone o Western art # [889]Frederic Remington, The Fall of the Cowboy o Aestheticism and the Gilded Age # [890]Browse this content # James Abbott McNeill Whistler @ [891]Symphony in White, No. 1: The White Girl @ [892]Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket # John Singer Sargent @ [893]El Jaleo @ [894]The Daughters of Edward Darley Boit @ [895]Madame X (Madame Pierre Gautreau) @ [896]Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose @ [897]Kehinde Wiley on John Singer Sargent o Photography # [898]Browse this content # [899]Augustus Washington, John Brown # [900]John Choate, Boarding School Portraits of Tom Torlino # Carleton Watkins @ [901]Eagle Creek, Columbia River @ [902]Peaks and perils: The life of Carleton Watkins # Timothy O'Sullivan @ [903]A Harvest of Death @ [904]Ancient Ruins in the Ca�on de Chelle # [905]Jacob Riis, "Knee-Pants" at Forty-Five Cents a Dozen--A Ludlow Street Sweater's Shop, from How the Other Half Lives o Sculpture and architecture # [906]Browse this content # [907]The Alamo (& Mission San Antonio de Valero) # [908]Congo Square, New Orleans # [909]Inventing America, Colt's Experimental Pocket Pistol # [910]Cultures and slavery in the American south: a Face Jug from Edgefield county # [911]David Drake, Double-handled jug # [912]Little Round House # [913]John Quincy Adams Ward, The Freedman # Edmonia Lewis @ [914]The Old Arrow Maker @ [915]Forever Free # [916]Anna Pottery, Snake jug # [917]Hiram Powers, The Greek Slave # [918]William Wetmore Story, Cleopatra # [919]Thomas Crawford, George Washington Equestrian Monument # [920]Slave Burial Ground, University of Alabama # [921]Seneca Village: the lost history of African Americans in New York # [922]Olmsted and Vaux, Central Park # [923]Herter Brothers, Mark Hopkins House Side Chair # [924]Robert Mills and Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Lincoln Casey, Washington Monument # [925]The light of democracy -- examining the Statue of Liberty # [926]Monument Avenue and the Lost Cause # [927]Defeated, heroized, dismantled: Richmond's Robert E. Lee Monument # [928]Shrady and Casey, Ulysses S. Grant Memorial # Burnham and Root @ [929]The Monadnock Building @ [930]Reliance Building # Louis Sullivan @ [931]Bayard-Condict Building @ [932]Carson, Pirie, Scott Building # [933]Carr�re & Hastings, The New York Public Library + Canada in the 19th century o [934]"A Cheap Farm House," c. 1864-onward o [935]William Notman, Ice Shove, Commissioner Street, Montreal o [936]Frances Jones (Bannerman), In the Conservatory * South America before c. 1500 + [937]Browse this content + Beginner's guide o [938]Introduction to Andean Cultures o [939]Introduction to Ancient Andean Art o [940]Ancient Andean art in context: An origin story ("The Legend of �aymlap") + Peru and Bolivia o [941]Caral o Cupisnique # [942]Feline-Head Bottle o Chav�n culture # [943]Chav�n de Hu�ntar # [944]Complexity and vision: the Staff God at Chav�n de Hu�ntar and beyond o Salinar culture # [945]Nose ornament with spiders o Nasca # [946]Nasca Art: Sacred Linearity and Bold Designs # [947]Nasca ceramics, an introduction # [948]Nasca Geoglyphs # [949]The Paracas Textile o Paracas # [950]Browse this content # [951]Paracas, an introduction # [952]Paracas Textiles, an introduction # [953]Paracas Supernatural Bird Mantle # [954]Paracas Feline Face Bottle # [955]Paracas Flying Figure Bowl o Moche culture # [956]Browse this content # [957]Moche culture, an introduction # [958]The Moche Royal Tombs of Sip�n # [959]Pair of Earflares, Winged Messengers # [960]Moche Portrait Head Bottle # [961]Funerary bundle of the Se�ora de Cao # [962]Moche Octopus Headdress o Wari # [963]Four-cornered hat # [964]Feather panels # [965]A Wari tunic o Tiwanaku # [966]Tiwanaku, an introduction # [967]Semi-subterranean Court at the site of Tiwanaku o Chancay culture # [968]Chancay Standing Female Figure o Chim� culture # [969]Introduction to the Chim� culture # [970]Chan Chan o Sic�n culture # [971]Inverse-Face Beaker o Inka # [972]Browse this content # [973]Introduction to the Inka # [974]Inka stone vessels # [975]The Inka khipu # [976]City of Cuzco # [977]An Inka paccha # [978]Maize cobs # [979]Machu Picchu # [980]All-T'oqapu Tunic # [981]Inka checkerboard tunics # [982]Keru Vessel # [983]What is an Inka ushnu? + Ecuador o Chorrera culture # [984]Chorrera ceramics o Jama-Coaque culture # [985]Jama-Coaque ceramics + Ancient Colombia chiefdoms o [986]Ancient Colombian goldmaking o [987]Muisca Raft * South America c. 1500-1820 + [988]Browse this content + Viceroyalty of Peru o [989]Browse this content o A beginner's guide # [990]Introduction to the Viceroyalty of Peru # [991]Portrait Painting in the Viceroyalty of Peru o 16th century # [992]Introduction to religious art and architecture in early colonial Peru # [993]Early Viceregal Architecture and Art in Colombia # [994]Textiles in the Colonial Andes o 17th and 18th centuries # Guaman Poma and the First New Chronicle and Good Government @ [995]Guaman Poma and The First New Chronicle and Good Government @ [996]Africans in Guaman Poma's Nueva Cor�nica @ [997]"Bad Confession" in Guaman Poma's The First New Chronicle and Good Government # [998]Luis de Ria�o and Indigenous collaborators, The Paths to Heaven and Hell, Church of San Pedro de Andahuaylillas # [999]Bernardo Bitti, Coronation of the Virgin # [1000]Alonso de Ovalle, Tabula geographica regni Chile # [1001]Ex-voto of Cuzco's 1650 Earthquake # [1002]Diego Quispe Tito, Last Judgment, 1675 # [1003]Parish of San Sebasti�n, Procession of Corpus Christi series # [1004]Master of Calamarca, Angel with Arquebus # [1005]Melchor P�rez de Holgu�n, Entry of Viceroy Archbishop Morcillo into Potos� # Cuzco School painting @ [1006]Our Lady of Cocharcas and the Cuzco School of Painting @ [1007]The Coronation of the Virgin by the Holy Trinity @ [1008]The Child Mary Spinning @ [1009]Union of the Inka Royal Family with the Houses of Loyola and Borgia @ [1010]Portrait of Don Marcos Chiguan Topa @ [1011]Cuzco School Artist, Saint Joseph and the Christ Child @ [1012]Conserving Cuzco School Paintings # [1013]Fourteen portraits of the Inka Kings # [1014]Official Portrait of Bishop Luis Francisco Romero # [1015]Portraits of Francisca Ram�rez de Laredo and Antonio de Ulloa # [1016]Churches of Chilo� + Viceroyalty of New Granada o [1017]Browse this content o [1018]Virgin of Chiquinquir� o [1019]Juan Pedro L�pez, Our Lady of Guidance o [1020]Crown of the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception o [1021]Diego Antonio de Landaeta, Portrait of Petronila M�ndez o [1022]Vicente Alb�n, Quito series + Viceroyalty of the R�o de la Plata o [1023]Jesuit Missions of the R�o de la Plata + Colonial Brazil o [1024]Browse this content o [1025]Introduction to colonial Brazil o [1026]Albert Eckhout, Series of eight figures o [1027]Church of S�o Francisco de Assis, Ouro Preto o [1028]Church of Our Lady of the Rosary of the Blacks, Ouro Preto o [1029]Mestre Valentim, Passeio P�blico, Rio de Janeiro o [1030]Sanctuary of Bom Jesus de Matosinhos of Congonhas do Campo, 1757-1872 o Carlos Juli�o # [1031]Watercolor manuscript # [1032]"Black Kings and Queens" o [1033]Jesuit Missions of the Guaranis o [1034]Manoel da Costa Ata�de, ceiling painting of the Church of Saint Anthony, Santa B�rbara o [1035]An Antidote for Social Amnesia: The Memory Space of the Cais do Valongo + Amazonian o [1036]Munduruk� Headdress: a glimpse of life in the Amazon rainforest o [1037]Kayap� Headdress: a glimpse of life in the Amazon rainforest * Latin America c. 1800-1900 + [1038]Browse this content + A beginner's guide o [1039]Independence from Spanish rule in South America o [1040]Early Scientific Exploration in Latin America o [1041]Costumbrismo o [1042]Latin American artistic pilgrimages to Paris o [1043]Landscape Painting in Nineteenth-Century Latin America o [1044]The challenge of the nude in 19th-century Latin American painting + Mexico in the 19th century o [1045]Browse this content o [1046]The Academy of San Carlos o [1047]Mexican Independence o [1048]Ferdinand Deppe, The Mission of San Gabriel, Alta California in May 1832 o [1049]Manuel Vilar, Tlahuicole o [1050]F�lix Parra, Fray Bartolom� de las Casas o Jos� Mar�a Velasco # [1051]The Valley of Mexico from the Santa Isabel Mountain Range # [1052]The Candelabrum o [1053]Jos� Agust�n Arrieta, La Sorpreza o [1054]Felipe Santiago Guti�rrez, La despedida del joven indio o [1055]Cristo de Sacromonte ex-voto o [1056]Retablo of La Mano Poderosa/The All Powerful Hand + Caribbean in the 19th century o Francisco Oller # [1057]Hacienda La Fortuna # [1058]Still Life with Plantains and Bananas and Still Life with Coconuts # [1059]The Wake # [1060]President William McKinley o [1061]Richard Evans, Portraits of the Caribbean's first Black king and prince o [1062]Isaac Mendes Belisario, Sketches of Character o [1063]Michel-Jean Cazabon, Cedar Point, Mount Tamana o [1064]Manuel Cuy�s Agull�, El desembarque de los americanos en Ponce, 27 de julio de 1898 + Colombia in the 19th century o [1065]Browse this content o [1066]Carmelo Fern�ndez, The Strait of Furatena in the Minero River + Photography o [1067]Marc Ferrez, Slaves at a Coffee Yard in a Farm, Vale do Paraiba, Sao Paulo Mesoamerica, an introduction by [1068]Dr. Lauren Kilroy-Ewbank Avocado, tomato, and chocolate. You are likely familiar with at least some of these food items. Did you know that they all originally come from Mexico, and are all based on Nahuatl words (ahuacatl, tomatl, and chocolatl) that were eventually adopted by the English language? Nahuatl is the language spoken by the Nahua ethnic group that is found today in Mexico, but with deep historical roots. You might know one Nahua group: the Aztecs, more accurately called the Mexica. The Mexica were one of many Mesoamerican cultural groups that flourished in Mexico prior to the arrival of Europeans in the sixteenth century. [1069]Map of Mesoamerica, with the borders of modern countries Map of Mesoamerica, with the borders of modern countries Where was Mesoamerica? Mesoamerica refers to the diverse civilizations that shared similar cultural characteristics in the geographic areas comprising the modern-day countries of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Some of the shared cultural traits among Mesoamerican peoples included a complex pantheon of deities, architectural features, a ballgame, the 260-day calendar, trade, food (especially a reliance on maize, beans, and squash), dress, and accoutrements (such as earspools). Some of the most well-known Mesoamerican cultures are the Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, Teotihuacan, Mixtec, and [1070]Mexica (or Aztec). The geography of Mesoamerica is incredibly diverse--it includes humid tropical areas, dry deserts, high mountainous terrain, and low coastal plains. An anthropologist named Paul Kirchkoff first used the term "Mesoamerica" (meso is Greek for "middle" or "intermediate") in 1943 to designate these geographical areas as having shared cultural traits prior to the invasion of Europeans, and the term has remained. Typically when we discuss Mesoamerican art we are referring to art made by peoples in Mexico and much of Central America. When people mention Native North American art, they are usually referring to indigenous peoples in the U.S. and Canada, even though these countries are technically all part of North America. More recently, archaeologists and art historians have considered connections between the Southwestern and Southeastern U.S. and Mesoamerica, an area sometimes called either the Greater Southwest or Greater Mesoamerica. Focusing on these connections demonstrates how people were in contact with one another through trade, shared beliefs, migration, or conflict. Ball courts, for instance, are found in Arizona sites such as the Pueblo Grande of the Hohokam. It is important to remember that modern-day geographic terms--like Mesoamerica or the Southwestern U.S.--are recent designations. This essay generalizes about Mesoamerican cultures, but keep in mind that each possessed unique qualities and cultural differences. Mesoamerica was not homogenous. When was Mesoamerica? Art historians and archaeologists divide Mesoamerican history into distinct periods and some of these periods are then further divided into the sub-periods--early, middle, and late. [1071]Table of mesoamerican periods The date for the end of the Postclassic period is somewhat contested as it presumes that Mesoamerican culture largely ended with the arrival of Spaniards into the Mexica capital of Tenochtitlan in 1519, though Mesoamerican culture continued under Spanish control, albeit significantly transformed. You might also encounter the term Pre-Columbian, which is a term designating indigenous cultures prior to the arrival of Columbus. It includes those in Mesoamerica, as well as in South America and the Caribbean. The term pre-Columbian is complicated however. For one thing, although it refers to the indigenous peoples of the Americas, the phrase does not directly reference any of the many sophisticated cultures that flourished in the Americas (think of the Aztec, Inka, or Maya, to name only a few) and instead invokes a European explorer. For this reason and because indigenous peoples flourished before and after the arrival of the Europeans, the term is often seen as flawed. Other terms such as pre-Hispanic, pre-Cortesian, or more simply, ancient Americas, are sometimes used. What language did people speak? There was no single language that united the peoples of Mesoamerica. Linguists believe that Mesoamericans spoke more than 125 different languages. For instance, Maya peoples did not speak "Mayan", but could have spoken Yucatec Maya, K'iche, or Tzotzil among many others. The Mexica belonged to the bigger Nahua ethnic group, and therefore spoke Nahuatl. [1072]Map of indigenous languages in Mexico with more than 100,000 speakers Indigenous languages in Mexico currently spoken by more than 100,000 people To students learning about Mesoamerica for the first time, the incredible diversity of people, languages, and even deities can be overwhelming. I recall my first Mesoamerican art history class vividly. I was intimidated by my lack of familiarity with different Mesoamerican words, languages, and cultural groups. By the end of the semester I was proud that I could differentiate between the Zapotec and Mixtec, and could spell Tlaloc. It took me a few more years to be able to spell and pronounce words like Tlacaxipehualiztli (Tla-cawsh-ee-pay-wal-eeezt-li) or Huitzilopochtli (Wheat-zil-oh-poach-lee). Writing Mesoamerican writing systems vary by culture. Rebus writing (writing with images) was common among many groups, like the Nahua and Mixtec. Imagine drawing an eye, a heart, and an apple. You've just used rebus writing to communicate "I love apples" to anyone familiar with these symbols. Many visual writing systems in Mesoamerica functioned similarly--although the previous example was simplified for the sake of clarity. You might encounter the phrases "writing without words" or "writing with signs" used to describe many writing systems in Mesoamerica. It is also called pictographic, ideographic, or picture writing. [1073]Marriage between Lord 8 Deer and Lady 13 Serpent in the Codex Zouche-Nuttall, c. 1450 CE, Mixtec (or �udzavui), Late Postclassic period, deerskin, folio 27 (The British Museum) Marriage between Lord 8 Deer and Lady 13 Serpent in the Codex Zouche-Nuttall, c. 1450 CE, Mixtec (or �udzavui), Late Postclassic period, deerskin, folio 27 ([1074]The British Museum) Only the Maya used a writing system like ours, where signs like letters designate sounds and syllables, and combined together to create words. Maya hieroglyphic writing is logographic, which means it uses a sign (think of a picture, symbol, or a letter) to communicate a syllable or a word. The 260-day ritual calendar vs. the 365-day calendar Other shared features among Mesoamerican peoples were the 260-day and 365-day calendars. The 260-day calendar was a ritual calendar, with 20 months of 13 days. Based on the sun, the 365-day calendar had 18 months of 20 days, with five "extra" nameless days at the end. It was the count of time used for agriculture. Imagine both of these calendars as interlocking wheels. Every 52 years they completed a full cycle, and during this time special rituals commemorated the cycle. For example, the Mexica celebrated the New Fire Ceremony as a period of renewal. These cycles were understood as life cycles, and so reflect creation, death, and rebirth. The Maya (especially during the Classic period), also used a Long Count calendar in addition to the two already mentioned (rather than a cyclical calendar, the Long Count marked time as if along an extended line that does not repeat). Religion and pantheon of gods A complex pantheon of gods existed within each Mesoamerican culture. Many groups shared similar deities, although there was a great deal of variation. Deities that had important roles across Mesoamerica included a storm/rain god and a feathered serpent deity. Among the Mexica, this storm/rain god was known as [1075]Tlaloc, and the feathered serpent deity was known as Quetzalcoatl. The Maya referred to their storm/rain deity as Chaac (there are multiple spellings). The equivalent of Quetzalcoatl among different Maya groups included Kukulkan (Yucatec Maya) and Q'uq'umatz (K'iche Maya). Cocijo is the Zapotec equivalent of the storm/rain god. Many artworks exist that show these two deities with similar features. The storm/rain deity often has goggle eyes and an upturned mouth/snout. Feathered serpent deities typically showed serpent features paired with feathers. [1076]Quetzalcoatl (Feathered Serpent), c. 1321-1521, 210 x 440 cm (National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico) Quetzalcoatl (Feathered Serpent), c. 1321-1521, 210 x 440 cm (National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico) It is difficult to generalize about Mesoamerican religious beliefs and cosmological ideas because they were so complex. Throughout Mesoamerica, there was a general belief in the universe's division along two axes: one vertical, the other horizontal. At the center, where these two axes meet, is the axis mundi, or the center (or navel) of the universe. On the horizontal plane, four directions branch off from the axis mundi. Think of the four cardinal directions (north, south, east, and west). On the vertical plane, we generally find the world split into three major realms: the celestial, terrestrial, and underworld. [1077]Codex F�jervary-Mayer, 15th century, f. 1 (World Museum, Liverpool) Codex F�jervary-Mayer, 15th century, f. 1 (World Museum, Liverpool) One Mexica example helps to clarify this complex cosmological system. An image in the Codex F�jervary-Mayer displays the cosmos's horizontal axis. In the center is the deity Xiuhtecuhtli (a fire god), standing in the place of the axis mundi. Four nodes (what look almost like trapezoidal petals) branch off from his position, creating a shape called a Maltese Cross. East (top) is associated with red, south (right) with green, west (bottom) with blue, and north (left) with yellow. A specific plant and bird accompany each world direction: blue tree and quetzal (east), cacao and parrot (south), maize and blue-painted bird (west), and cactus and eagle (north). Two figures flank the plant in each arm of the cross. Together, these figures and Xiuhtecuhtli represent the Nine Lords of the Night. This cosmogram describes how the Mexica conceived of the universe. [1078]Ball Court Model, Mexico, Nayarit, c. 200 B.C. - 500 C.E., ceramic with slip and other pigments (15.24 x 21.59 x 34.29 cm) (Los Angelas County Museum of Art) Ball Court Model, Mexico, Nayarit, c. 200 B.C.E.-500 C.E., ceramic with slip and other pigments, 15.24 x 21.59 x 34.29 cm ([1079]Los Angeles County Museum of Art) The ballgame Peoples across Mesoamerica, beginning with the Olmecs, played a ritual sport known as the [1080]ballgame. Ballcourts were often located in a city's sacred precinct, emphasizing the importance of the game. Solid rubber balls were passed between players (no hands allowed!), with the goal of hitting them through markers. Players wore padded garments to protect their bodies from the hard ball. The meanings of the ballgame were many and varied. It could symbolize a range of larger cosmological ideas, including the movement of the sun through the underworld every night. War captives also played the game against members of a winning city or group, with the game symbolizing their defeat in war. Sometimes a game was even played instead of going to war. Numerous objects display aspects of the ballgame, attesting to its significant role across Mesoamerica. We have examples of clay sculptures of ballgames occurring on courts. Ballplayers are also frequent subjects in Maya painted ceramic vessels and sculptures. Stone reliefs at El Tajin and Chichen Itza depict different moments of a ballgame culminating in ritual sacrifice. Painted pictorial codices, such as the Codex Borgia (above), display I-shaped ballcourts, and stone depictions of ballgame clothing have been found. Today, people in Mexico still play a version of the ballgame. [1081]I-shaped ballcourt, Codex Borgia, c. 1500, f. 42 (Vatican Library) I-shaped ballcourt, Codex Borgia, c. 1500, f. 42 ([1082]Vatican Library) Mesoamerican societies continue to impress us with their sophistication and accomplishments, notably their artistic achievements. Our understanding continues to expand with ongoing research and archaeological excavations. Recent excavations in Mexico City, for instance, uncovered [1083]a new monumental Mexica sculpture buried with some of the most unique objects we've ever seen in Mexica art. With these discoveries, our understanding of the Mexica will no doubt grow and change. Bibliography [1084]The Mesoamerican Ballgame on the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History [1085]The Ancient Future: Mesoamerican and Andean Timekeeping (Dumbarton Oaks) Cite this page Cite this page as: Dr. Lauren Kilroy-Ewbank, "Mesoamerica, an introduction," in Smarthistory, September 12, 2017, accessed September 21, 2024, [1086]https://smarthistory.org/mesoamerica-an-introduction/. (BUTTON) Your donations help make art history free and accessible to everyone! [1087]Donate Arrow pointing to the right [1088]Smarthistory Logo Smarthistory� believes art has the power to transform lives and to build understanding across cultures. The brilliant histories of art belong to everyone, no matter their background. Smarthistory's free, award-winning digital content unlocks the expertise of hundreds of leading scholars, making the history of art accessible and engaging to more people, in more places, than any other publisher. * [1089]About Smarthistory * [1090]Smarthistory's blog * [1091]Contribute an essay * [1092]Content editors and contributors * [1093]Contact Us * [1094]Donate Download free images Subscribe to our channel Connect with us Connect with us Subscribe to our newsletter ____________________ Subscribe ____________________ � 2024 Smarthistory creative commons cc icon creative commons cc icon creative commons cc icon creative commons cc icon essays and videos by experts, made for you... 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https://smarthistory.org/socorro-black-on-white-storage-jar/ 81. https://smarthistory.org/introduction-to-mogollon/ 82. https://smarthistory.org/paquime-casas-grandes-mogollon-culture/ 83. https://smarthistory.org/americas-before-1900/north-america-to-1500/mesoamerica/ 84. https://smarthistory.org/mesoamerica-an-introduction/ 85. https://smarthistory.org/periods-mesoamerican-history/ 86. https://smarthistory.org/mesoamerican-calendar/ 87. https://smarthistory.org/camelid-sacrum-in-the-shape-of-a-canine/ 88. https://smarthistory.org/late-preclassic-mesoamerica-introduction/ 89. https://smarthistory.org/mesoamerican-art-in-context-origin-story-popol-vuh/ 90. https://smarthistory.org/glossary-for-pre-columbian-art/ 91. https://smarthistory.org/tlatilco-figurines/ 92. https://smarthistory.org/americas-before-1900/north-america-to-1500/mesoamerica/olmec-art/ 93. https://smarthistory.org/olmec-colossal-heads/ 94. https://smarthistory.org/kunz-axe-olmec/ 95. 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https://smarthistory.org/bear-pawnee/ 685. https://smarthistory.org/eastern-shoshone-hide-painting-of-the-sun-dance-attributed-to-cotsiogo-cadzi-cody/ 686. https://smarthistory.org/feathered-war-bonnet/ 687. https://smarthistory.org/headdress-cheyenne-or-lakota/ 688. https://smarthistory.org/paukeigope-kiowa-cradleboard/ 689. https://smarthistory.org/mato-najin-standing-bear-battle-little-bighorn/ 690. https://smarthistory.org/two-bear-gates-suitcase/ 691. https://smarthistory.org/one-bull-custers-war/ 692. https://smarthistory.org/bethel-basket-bowl/ 693. https://smarthistory.org/brummett-echohawk-an-island-of-redbuds-on-the-cimarron-2/ 694. https://smarthistory.org/americas-before-1900/north-america-c-1500-1900/native-n-am-art-after-1500/native-american-art-southwest/ 695. https://smarthistory.org/pueblo-architecture-place/ 696. https://smarthistory.org/mission-church-san-esteban-del-rey-acoma-pueblo-2/ 697. https://smarthistory.org/acoma-polychrome-water-jar/ 698. 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https://smarthistory.org/tlingit-mortuary-and-memorial-totem-poles/ 715. https://smarthistory.org/proud-raven-totem-pole-saxman-totem-park/ 716. https://smarthistory.org/the-story-of-the-oyster-man-a-tlingit-totem-pole/ 717. https://smarthistory.org/the-chief-johnson-totem-pole/ 718. https://smarthistory.org/dorica-jackson-diving-whale-chilkat-robe/ 719. https://smarthistory.org/clarissa-rizal-resilience-robe/ 720. https://smarthistory.org/northwest-coast-basketry-woven-traditions/ 721. https://smarthistory.org/americas-before-1900/north-america-c-1500-1900/viceroyalty-new-spain/ 722. https://smarthistory.org/new-spain/ 723. https://smarthistory.org/prints-and-printmakers-in-colonial-new-spain/ 724. https://smarthistory.org/cochineal/ 725. https://smarthistory.org/medici-americas/ 726. https://smarthistory.org/virgin-of-guadalupe/ 727. https://smarthistory.org/corn-pith-sculptures/ 728. https://smarthistory.org/defensive-saints-angels-spanish-americas/ 729. https://smarthistory.org/elite-secular-art-new-spain/ 730. https://smarthistory.org/hispaniola-intro/ 731. https://smarthistory.org/codex-huexotzinco/ 732. https://smarthistory.org/casa-del-dean-puebla/ 733. https://smarthistory.org/classical-architecture-viceregal-mexico/ 734. https://smarthistory.org/puebla-and-the-classical-architectural-tradition/ 735. https://smarthistory.org/hearst-chalice/ 736. https://smarthistory.org/missions-new-spain/ 737. https://smarthistory.org/st-michael-the-archangel-in-huejotzingo/ 738. https://smarthistory.org/the-convento-of-san-nicolas-de-tolentino-actopan-hidalgo/ 739. https://smarthistory.org/a-new-jerusalem-in-the-americas-the-convento-of-acolman/ 740. https://smarthistory.org/acolman-murals/ 741. https://smarthistory.org/atrial-cross-acolman/ 742. https://smarthistory.org/frontispiece-of-the-codex-mendoza/ 743. https://smarthistory.org/images-of-africans-in-the-codex-telleriano-remensis-and-codex-azcatitlan/ 744. https://smarthistory.org/bernardino-de-sahagun-and-collaborators-florentine-codex/ 745. https://smarthistory.org/remembering-the-toxcatl-massacre-the-beginning-of-the-end-of-aztec-supremacy/ 746. https://smarthistory.org/featherworks/ 747. https://smarthistory.org/a-renaissance-miniature-in-wood-and-feathers/ 748. https://smarthistory.org/a-shimmering-saint-st-john-in-featherwork/ 749. https://smarthistory.org/map-cholula/ 750. https://smarthistory.org/burning-idols-diego-munoz-camargo-description-city-province-tlaxcala/ 751. https://smarthistory.org/engravings-in-diego-de-valadess-rhetorica-christiana/ 752. https://smarthistory.org/santiago-on-horseback/ 753. https://smarthistory.org/luis-de-carvajal/ 754. https://smarthistory.org/cecilia-andres-concha/ 755. https://smarthistory.org/scenes-of-alameda/ 756. https://smarthistory.org/testerian-catechism-egerton-codex/ 757. https://smarthistory.org/ibia-hermits/ 758. https://smarthistory.org/mission-church-san-esteban-del-rey-acoma-pueblo/ 759. https://smarthistory.org/sebastian-lopez-de-arteaga-marriage-virgin/ 760. https://smarthistory.org/gonzalez-guadalupe/ 761. https://smarthistory.org/christ-crucified/ 762. https://smarthistory.org/villalpando-plaza-mayor-mexico-city/ 763. https://smarthistory.org/talavera-poblana/ 764. https://smarthistory.org/screen-with-the-siege-of-belgrade-and-hunting-scene-or-brooklyn-biombo/ 765. https://smarthistory.org/biombo-conquest/ 766. https://smarthistory.org/cabrera-portrait-of-sor-juana-ines-de-la-cruz/ 767. https://smarthistory.org/cabrera-apocalypse/ 768. https://smarthistory.org/cabrera-casta-painting/ 769. https://smarthistory.org/spaniard-and-indian-produce-a-mestizo-attributed-to-juan-rodriguez/ 770. https://smarthistory.org/francisco-clapera-casta/ 771. https://smarthistory.org/juan-patricio-morlete-ruiz-christ-consoled-by-angels/ 772. https://smarthistory.org/virgin-macana/ 773. https://smarthistory.org/miguel-de-herrera-portrait-of-a-lady/ 774. https://smarthistory.org/crowned-nun-portraits-introduction/ 775. https://smarthistory.org/crowned-nun-portrait/ 776. https://smarthistory.org/escudos-de-monjas-or-nuns-badges-in-new-spain/ 777. https://smarthistory.org/mission-san-antonio-de-valero-the-alamo/ 778. https://smarthistory.org/nativity-group-colonial-guatemala/ 779. https://smarthistory.org/jeronimo-de-balbas-altar-of-the-kings-altar-de-los-reyes/ 780. https://smarthistory.org/church-santa-prisca-and-san-sebastian-taxco/ 781. https://smarthistory.org/americas-before-1900/british-colonies-early-republic/ 782. https://smarthistory.org/1607-1754-in-north-america-colonies-slavery-and-war/ 783. https://smarthistory.org/engravings-theodore-de-bry/ 784. https://smarthistory.org/portraits-of-john-and-elizabeth-freake-and-their-baby/ 785. https://smarthistory.org/court-cupboard-2/ 786. https://smarthistory.org/african-burial-ground-new-york/ 787. https://smarthistory.org/john-smibert-the-bermuda-group/ 788. https://smarthistory.org/duyckinck-levy-franks-family/ 789. https://smarthistory.org/colonial-sugar/ 790. https://smarthistory.org/benjamin-wests-the-death-of-general-wolfe/ 791. https://smarthistory.org/benjamin-west-penn-treaty-indians/ 792. https://smarthistory.org/copley-boy-with-a-squirrel/ 793. https://smarthistory.org/copley-mifflin/ 794. https://smarthistory.org/john-singleton-copley-paul-revere/ 795. https://smarthistory.org/copley-the-copley-family/ 796. https://smarthistory.org/copley-watson-and-the-shark/ 797. https://smarthistory.org/1754-1800-in-north-america-an-introduction/ 798. https://smarthistory.org/trumbull-declaration/ 799. https://smarthistory.org/houdon-george-washington/ 800. https://smarthistory.org/gilbert-stuart-the-skater/ 801. https://smarthistory.org/gilbert-stuarts-lansdowne-portrait/ 802. https://smarthistory.org/jefferson-monticello/ 803. https://smarthistory.org/jefferson-rotunda-uvirginia/ 804. https://smarthistory.org/peale-mamout/ 805. https://smarthistory.org/charles-willson-peale-staircase-group-portrait-of-raphaelle-peale-and-titian-ramsay-peale/ 806. https://smarthistory.org/charles-willson-peale-the-artist-in-his-museum/ 807. https://smarthistory.org/rembrandt-peale-rubens-peale-with-a-geranium/ 808. https://smarthistory.org/vanderlyn-ariadne-asleep-on-the-island-of-naxos/ 809. https://smarthistory.org/birch-lake-erie/ 810. https://smarthistory.org/birch-fairmount-water-works/ 811. https://smarthistory.org/jose-campeche-portraitist-puerto-rico/ 812. https://smarthistory.org/jose-campeche-portrait-governor-ramon-de-castro/ 813. https://smarthistory.org/jose-campeche-exvoto-de-la-sagrada-familia/ 814. https://smarthistory.org/agostino-brunias-free-women-of-color-their-children-servants-landscape/ 815. https://smarthistory.org/americas-before-1900/united-states-19th-century/ 816. https://smarthistory.org/1800-48-in-the-united-states-an-introduction/ 817. https://smarthistory.org/1848-77-in-the-united-states-an-introduction/ 818. https://smarthistory.org/1877-1898-in-the-united-states-an-introduction/ 819. https://smarthistory.org/the-mexican-american-war-19th-century-american-art-in-context/ 820. https://smarthistory.org/john-browns-tragic-prelude-to-the-u-s-civil-war/ 821. https://smarthistory.org/the-missouri-compromise-and-the-dangerous-precedent-of-appeasement/ 822. https://smarthistory.org/the-immediate-cause-of-the-civil-war-an-introduction/ 823. https://smarthistory.org/the-problem-of-picturing-slavery/ 824. https://smarthistory.org/images-in-a-divided-world/ 825. https://smarthistory.org/imagining-the-west-territorial-expansion-and-the-politics-of-slavery/ 826. https://smarthistory.org/experiences-of-the-u-s-civil-war-an-introduction/ 827. https://smarthistory.org/the-work-of-war/ 828. https://smarthistory.org/homes-and-families/ 829. https://smarthistory.org/refugees-prisoners-and-displacement/ 830. https://smarthistory.org/memory-and-commemoration-of-the-u-s-civil-war-an-introduction/ 831. https://smarthistory.org/the-lost-cause-and-confederate-memory/ 832. https://smarthistory.org/abraham-lincoln-and-northern-memory/ 833. https://smarthistory.org/nast-reconstruction-political-cartoon/ 834. https://smarthistory.org/nativism-immigration-and-the-know-nothing-party/ 835. https://smarthistory.org/worlds-columbian-exposition-intro/ 836. https://smarthistory.org/white-city-and-fairgrounds/ 837. https://smarthistory.org/worlds-columbian-exposition-midway/ 838. https://smarthistory.org/americas-before-1900/united-states-19th-century/romanticism-in-the-united-states/ 839. https://smarthistory.org/washington-allston-elijah-in-the-desert/ 840. https://smarthistory.org/thomas-cole-expulsion-from-the-garden-of-eden/ 841. https://smarthistory.org/cole-the-oxbow/ 842. https://smarthistory.org/cole-dream/ 843. https://smarthistory.org/thomas-cole-the-voyage-of-life/ 844. https://smarthistory.org/thomas-cole-environmentalist/ 845. https://smarthistory.org/americas/hicks-peaceable/ 846. https://smarthistory.org/catlin-the-white-cloud-head-chief-of-the-iowas/ 847. https://smarthistory.org/leutze-washington-crossing-the-delaware/ 848. https://smarthistory.org/leutze-manifest-destiny/ 849. https://smarthistory.org/rothermel-desoto/ 850. https://smarthistory.org/george-inness-the-lackawanna-valley/ 851. https://smarthistory.org/jasper-francis-cropsey-mount-jefferson-pinkham-notch-white-mountains/ 852. https://smarthistory.org/church-niagara-and-heart-of-the-andes/ 853. https://smarthistory.org/church-cotopaxi/ 854. https://smarthistory.org/frederic-church-iceberg/ 855. https://smarthistory.org/fitz-henry-lane-owls-head-penobscot-bay-maine/ 856. https://smarthistory.org/bierstadt-hetch-hetchy-valley/ 857. https://smarthistory.org/moran-yellowstone/ 858. https://smarthistory.org/black-artists-travel-19c/ 859. https://smarthistory.org/an-introduction-to-jewish-art-in-the-united-states-before-1900/ 860. https://smarthistory.org/moses-jacob-ezekiel-religious-liberty/ 861. https://smarthistory.org/henry-mosler-le-retour/ 862. https://smarthistory.org/julius-bien-max-rosenthal-and-chromolithography/ 863. https://smarthistory.org/solomon-nunes-carvalho-view-of-a-cheyenne-village/ 864. https://smarthistory.org/radical-floriography-sarah-mapps-douglass/ 865. https://smarthistory.org/americas-before-1900/united-states-19th-century/realism-united-states/ 866. https://smarthistory.org/francis-guy-winter-scene-in-brooklyn/ 867. https://smarthistory.org/john-wesley-jarvis-black-hawk-and-his-son-whirling-thunder/ 868. https://smarthistory.org/william-sidney-mount-bargaining-for-a-horse/ 869. https://smarthistory.org/john-james-audubon-the-wild-turkey/ 870. https://smarthistory.org/richard-caton-woodville-war-news-from-mexico/ 871. https://smarthistory.org/asher-b-durand-kindred-spirits/ 872. https://smarthistory.org/bingham-country-politician/ 873. https://smarthistory.org/frederic-church-the-natural-bridge-virginia/ 874. https://smarthistory.org/blythe-justice/ 875. https://smarthistory.org/hovenden-john-brown/ 876. https://smarthistory.org/johnson-a-ride-for-liberty-the-fugitive-slaves/ 877. https://smarthistory.org/spencer-red-white-and-blue/ 878. https://smarthistory.org/colman-ships-new-york/ 879. https://smarthistory.org/eakins-the-champion-single-sculls-max-schmitt-in-a-single-scull/ 880. https://smarthistory.org/eakins-the-gross-clinic/ 881. https://smarthistory.org/the-u-s-civil-war-sharpshooters-and-winslow-homer/ 882. https://smarthistory.org/winslow-homer-army-teamsters/ 883. https://smarthistory.org/winslow-homer-taking-sunflower-to-teacher/ 884. https://smarthistory.org/winslow-homer-the-life-line/ 885. https://smarthistory.org/winslow-homer-the-fog-warning-or-halibut-fishing/ 886. https://smarthistory.org/winslow-homer-northeaster/ 887. https://smarthistory.org/winslow-homer-searchlight-cuba/ 888. https://smarthistory.org/brown-view-of-the-lower-falls-grand-canyon-of-the-yellowstone/ 889. https://smarthistory.org/remington-fall-cowboy/ 890. https://smarthistory.org/americas-before-1900/united-states-19th-century/aestheticism-gilded-age/ 891. https://smarthistory.org/whistler-symphony-in-white/ 892. https://smarthistory.org/whistler-nocturne-in-black-and-gold-the-falling-rocket/ 893. https://smarthistory.org/sargent-el-jaleo/ 894. https://smarthistory.org/sargent-the-daughters-of-edward-darley-boit/ 895. https://smarthistory.org/sargent-madame-x-madame-pierre-gautreau/ 896. https://smarthistory.org/john-singer-sargent-carnation-lily-lily-rose/ 897. https://smarthistory.org/kehinde-wiley-on-john-singer-sargent/ 898. https://smarthistory.org/americas-before-1900/north-america-c-1500-1900/united-states-19th-century/19th-century-american-photography/ 899. https://smarthistory.org/augustus-washington-john-brown/ 900. https://smarthistory.org/john-choate-boarding-school-portraits-of-tom-torlino/ 901. https://smarthistory.org/carleton-watkins-eagle-creek-columbia-river/ 902. https://smarthistory.org/watkins-sfmoma/ 903. https://smarthistory.org/timothy-osullivan-harvest-of-death/ 904. https://smarthistory.org/timothy-osullivan-ancient-ruins-in-the-canon-de-chelle/ 905. https://smarthistory.org/jacob-riis-how-the-other-half-lives-knee-pants-at-forty-five-cents-a-dozen-a-ludlow-street-sweaters-shop/ 906. https://smarthistory.org/americas-before-1900/united-states-19th-century/sculp-arch-photo/ 907. https://smarthistory.org/the-alamo/ 908. https://smarthistory.org/congo-square-new-orleans/ 909. https://smarthistory.org/colts-pistol/ 910. https://smarthistory.org/cultures-and-slavery-in-the-american-south-a-face-jug-from-edgefield-county/ 911. https://smarthistory.org/david-drake-double-handled-jug/ 912. https://smarthistory.org/little-round-house/ 913. https://smarthistory.org/ward-freedman/ 914. https://smarthistory.org/edmonia-lewis-the-old-arrow-maker/ 915. https://smarthistory.org/edmonia-lewis-forever-free/ 916. https://smarthistory.org/anna-pottery-snake-jug/ 917. https://smarthistory.org/hiram-power-greek-slave/ 918. https://smarthistory.org/william-wetmore-story-cleopatra/ 919. https://smarthistory.org/thomas-crawford-george-washington-equestrian-monument/ 920. https://smarthistory.org/slave-burial-ground-university-of-alabama/ 921. https://smarthistory.org/seneca-village-2/ 922. https://smarthistory.org/olmsted-and-vaux-central-park/ 923. https://smarthistory.org/mark-hopkins-house-side-chair-herter-brothers/ 924. https://smarthistory.org/robert-mills-and-lieutenant-colonel-thomas-lincoln-casey-washington-monument/ 925. https://smarthistory.org/statue-of-liberty/ 926. https://smarthistory.org/monument-avenue-and-the-lost-cause/ 927. https://smarthistory.org/lee-monument-richmond/ 928. https://smarthistory.org/shrady-and-casey-ulysses-s-grant-memorial/ 929. https://smarthistory.org/burnham-root-the-monadnock-building/ 930. https://smarthistory.org/reliance-building/ 931. https://smarthistory.org/louis-sullivan-bayard-skyscraper/ 932. https://smarthistory.org/sullivan-carson-pirie-scott-building/ 933. https://smarthistory.org/carrere-hastings-the-new-york-public-library/ 934. https://smarthistory.org/a-cheap-farm-house-1864-onward/ 935. https://smarthistory.org/william-notman-ice-shove-montreal/ 936. https://smarthistory.org/frances-jones-in-the-conservatory/ 937. https://smarthistory.org/americas-before-1900/s-america-before-colonization/ 938. https://smarthistory.org/intro-andes/ 939. https://smarthistory.org/introduction-to-ancient-andean-art/ 940. https://smarthistory.org/ancient-andean-art-in-context-origin-story-legend-of-naymlap/ 941. https://smarthistory.org/caral/ 942. https://smarthistory.org/feline-bottle/ 943. https://smarthistory.org/chavin-de-huantar/ 944. https://smarthistory.org/staff-god-chavin/ 945. 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https://smarthistory.org/funerary-bundle-of-the-senora-de-cao/ 962. https://smarthistory.org/moche-octopus-headdress/ 963. https://smarthistory.org/four-cornered-hat-wari/ 964. https://smarthistory.org/wari-feather-panels/ 965. https://smarthistory.org/a-wari-tunic/ 966. https://smarthistory.org/tiwanaku-an-introduction/ 967. https://smarthistory.org/semi-subterranean-court-tiwanaku/ 968. https://smarthistory.org/chancay-female-figure/ 969. https://smarthistory.org/chimu/ 970. https://smarthistory.org/chan-chan/ 971. https://smarthistory.org/what-the-bulldozers-left-behind-reclaiming-sicans-past-2/ 972. https://smarthistory.org/americas-before-1900/s-america-before-colonization/inka-art/ 973. https://smarthistory.org/inka-intro2/ 974. https://smarthistory.org/inka-an-introduction/ 975. https://smarthistory.org/inka-khipu/ 976. https://smarthistory.org/city-of-cusco/ 977. https://smarthistory.org/inka-paccha/ 978. https://smarthistory.org/maize-cobs/ 979. https://smarthistory.org/machu-picchu/ 980. https://smarthistory.org/all-toqapu-tunic/ 981. https://smarthistory.org/inka-checkerboard-tunics/ 982. https://smarthistory.org/keru-vessel/ 983. https://smarthistory.org/what-is-an-inka-ushnu/ 984. https://smarthistory.org/chorrera-ceramics/ 985. https://smarthistory.org/jama-coaque-ceramics/ 986. https://smarthistory.org/ancient-colombian-goldmaking/ 987. https://smarthistory.org/muisca-raft/ 988. https://smarthistory.org/americas-before-1900/colonial-latin-america/ 989. https://smarthistory.org/americas-before-1900/colonial-latin-america/viceroyalty-of-peru/ 990. https://smarthistory.org/viceroyalty-peru/ 991. https://smarthistory.org/portrait-painting-viceroyalty-peru/ 992. https://smarthistory.org/religious-art-architecture-colonial-peru/ 993. https://smarthistory.org/early-viceregal-architecture-art-colombia/ 994. https://smarthistory.org/textiles-in-the-colonial-andes/ 995. https://smarthistory.org/guaman-chronicle/ 996. 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https://smarthistory.org/strait-of-furatena/ 1067. https://smarthistory.org/marc-ferrez-slaves-coffee-yard/ 1068. https://smarthistory.org/author/dr-lauren-kilroy-ewbank/ 1069. http://smarthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/mesoamerica-2.jpg 1070. http://smarthistory.org/aztec-mexica-an-introduction/ 1071. http://smarthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/screen-shot-2017-09-12-at-6-49-35-pm.png 1072. http://smarthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/map_of_the_languages_of_mexico.png 1073. http://smarthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/rebusdiagram.jpg 1074. http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?assetId=20707001&objectId=662517&partId=1 1075. http://smarthistory.org/tlaloc-vessel/ 1076. http://smarthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/quetzalcoatl.jpg 1077. http://smarthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/v0_large.jpg 1078. http://smarthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/wla_lacma_ceremonial_ball_game_200_b-c-_-_a-d-_500_mexico_nayarit.jpg 1079. https://collections.lacma.org/node/253572 1080. http://smarthistory.org/the-mesoamerican-ballgame-and-a-classic-veracruz-yoke/ 1081. http://smarthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/codexborgia-ballcourt.jpg 1082. http://digi.vatlib.it/view/MSS_Borg.mess.1 1083. http://smarthistory.org/tlaltecuhtli/ 1084. http://metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mball/hd_mball.htm 1085. https://www.doaks.org/resources/online-exhibits/the-ancient-future-mesoamerican-and-andean-timekeeping 1086. https://smarthistory.org/mesoamerica-an-introduction/ 1087. https://smarthistory.org/financial-support 1088. https://smarthistory.org/ 1089. https://smarthistory.org/about 1090. https://smarthistoryblog.org/ 1091. https://smarthistory.org/contribute-an-essay 1092. https://smarthistory.org/author-list 1093. https://smarthistory.org/contact-us 1094. https://smarthistory.org/financial-support 1095. https://donorbox.org/smarthistory-2024-school-year Hidden links: 1097. https://www.flickr.com/photos/profzucker/ 1098. https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC3R-xanNgtoa8b7gpVexVlA 1099. https://www.instagram.com/smarthistory_official/ 1100. https://www.facebook.com/groups/smarthistory 1101. https://www.flickr.com/photos/profzucker/ 1102. https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC3R-xanNgtoa8b7gpVexVlA 1103. https://www.instagram.com/smarthistory_official/ 1104. https://www.facebook.com/groups/smarthistory

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